Learning is a lifelong process. Brown and colleagues add that if one can learn well, then they have an advantage in life. Schooling years may come to an end but the next phase poses challenges for which one must wrap one head around. As such learning is a personal experience, that is aimed at building a body of knowledge upon which individuals base their creativity and their decisions. In essence, before modifying an electronic device, then someone must have sufficient information in that area. The term cognitive comes from the word cognition that refers to refer to processes in the human mind in gaining knowledge and understanding. These processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. As such, cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. According to Vosniadou (1996), “Cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s as a result of the failure of behaviourism to provide adequate explanations of human cognition. Although many of the ideas of cognitive psychology can be traced to the work of a number of psychologists and philosophers who lived at a much earlier time” (p. 97).
This
paper aims at reviewing cognitive psychological research literature
particularly that which leans towards the application of cognitive psychology
techniques to learning and instruction. It relies on document reviews and
evaluates existing literature touching on research on learning and instruction.
The documents reviewed in this paper were found through searching the terms
“cognitive psychology, learning, instruction” on Google Scholar while others
are suggested readings on the topic. As such this essay is a basis for
understanding approach cognitive psychology view of learning and instruction.
It aims at exploring techniques teachers and coaches could use in becoming more
effective in helping students understand principles and by designing them into
learning experiences. Pursuing modifications to instructional design triggers a
different cognitive mechanism that aid in the learning and retention of
information.
Cognitive Psychology as an Applied
Science of Learning
According
to Glaser (1994 as cited by Vosniadou, 1996), cognitive psychological research
through its precise descriptions of our intelligent performance of mental
processes brought forth “an applied science of learning.” Essentially, this
applied science is made up of instructional intervention and experiments that
distinguish themselves from the basic psychology applied to education. the
cognitive psychological research in this case includes fundamental research in
how teaching and learning take place. Stella Vosniadou supports this claim
writing that the resulting cognitive psychology contribution to advances in
learning and instruction were to a large extent as a result of its methodology.
In her paper review, the author comments that cognitive psychology original
epistemology and implicit theory were “not fruitful enough to provide
hypotheses about the kinds of environmental variables that facilitate the
acquisition of complex modes of performance. Nevertheless, it seems that
cognitive psychology could provide the needed theoretical framework if the
original epistemology that guided cognitive psychological research is revised”
(Vosniadou, 1996, p. 96).
However,
Vosniadou writes that as psychologists and educators have recognized the significance
of cognitive psychology “in our understanding of learning and instruction” so
has its basic assumptions been challenged. For instance, Vosniadou finds that
situativity theory claims that “behaviour including learning, should be
investigated as an interaction between social agents and the physical
environment”. This assertion is against the
cognitive psychology assumption that in learning and instructions, the mind
“constructs and manipulates symbols through various cognitive processes” (p.
95). Additionally, the author notes the “Chomskyan biological perspective” (Vosniadou,
1996, p. 96) also as having an opposing view claiming that the human mind is
preprogrammed acquire systems of knowledge. Despite the opposition, it is
generally agreed that cognitive psychology has contributed to advances in learning
and instruction.
Cognitive Techniques for
Instructional Modifications
The
article Towards A Revised Cognitive Psychology for New Advances In Learning
And Instruction (1996) discusses cognitive research basic reach program
with particular attention to aspects that “attention to those aspects that seem
important from a learning theory” (p. 96). Vosniadou does this by attempting to
answer the research questions; “has cognitive psychology contributed to our
understanding of learning? Where has cognitive psychology failed?... What are
the implications of all these for future research on learning and instruction?”
(p. 96). The argument is that cognitive psychology if its view of the mind is
revised, can provide a theoretical framework “that has a place both for the
individual mind and for the larger social and cultural context that makes intellectual
activity possible and meaningful” (p. 106). This way it is thought that the
dissatisfaction of many researchers in the areas of learning and instruction
would have a much-needed theoretical framework that takes into “consideration
the biological, environmental, and sociocultural constraints within which” (Vosniadou,
1996, 2012, p. 106) cognitive processes occur. Effectively, the author breaks
down cognitive psychology application in education as a methodology of
experimental psychology coupled with cognitive task analysis.
Many
researchers have taken to understanding the variables that influence learning
processes. The result is a growing body of research. Roediger & Pyc (2012) Inexpensive
techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance
educational practice added to this understanding of variables influencing
learning. The authors argued that cognitive and
educational psychologists had identified strategies that could greatly and
inexpensively improve learning and information retention. However, when it
came to improving the educational system, some in Congress and the business
community recommend expensive technological applications not necessarily based
on any research. Citing the costly example of providing every American child
with a computer, the authors argue for the need for large studies to show the
step’s effectiveness, how and when computer-based education is warranted.
Whitehurst (2010 as cited by Roediger & Pyc, 2012) asserts proving that
educational innovations should be based on strong research evidence that it
produces positive results compared to standard practice in educational techniques.
Roediger and Pyc in their paper
discuss the results of cognitive and educational psychological researchers
shown to produce positive effects in learning. The front techniques with strong
that address the long-standing concerns of creativity in students. The argument
made is that for students to exhibit creativity, they must equally have a good
understanding of concept within a certain area. Robert Sternberg and Elena
Grigorenko (2003, as cited by Roediger & Pyc, 2012) commented that
“Teachers need to put behind them the false dichotomy between ‘teaching for
Thinking’ and ‘teaching for facts,’ or between emphases on thinking or emphases
on memory. Thinking always requires memory and the knowledge base that is
accessed through the use of memory. …One cannot apply what one knows in a
practical manner if one does not know anything to apply” (p. 243). As such,
emphasis on techniques with strong basic laboratory research and “research with
educational materials and, in some cases, evidence from research in the
classroom” (Roediger & Pyc, 2012, p. 243) aimed at contributing to students
building of their knowledge base.
The paper discusses cognitive
strategies that work in improving learning and retention as studied by
cognitive and educational psychologists. Moreover, they discuss strategies for
developing effective learning. Roediger and Pyc identify five techniques that
are inexpensive to implement and have been shown to work through scientific
research. These techniques include “distribution (spacing) of practice and
interleaving” (p.244) “retrieval practice” (p. 245, 246) “explanatory
questioning (Roediger & Pyc, 2012, 246). The authors conclude that
education can be improved in every country courtesy of the techniques described.
However, for individual study, the authors find that they require a motivated
learner for which most are not.
Multiples
of such research studies by cognitive psychologist spanning over years have
produced a body of knowledge that could inform modifications to teaching and
learning. Brown and colleagues’ book, Make it stick: the science of successful learning published in 2012 grew out of
such cognitive psychological research. The book is described as partly the
result of a collaborative venture that borrows from a previous study by
cognitive psychologists Roediger and colleagues. Additionally, it features a
creative writer as the researchers aim at relaying their years of discoveries
without too many descriptions of the methodologies and analysis. As such
creatively uses stories of individuals who have found mastery of complex
knowledge and skills in explaining how learning and memory work. Techniques
that have been found to improve learning and instruction are discussed applying
the same techniques throughout the book.
Brown
and colleagues assert that “how we teach and study is largely a mix of theory,
lore, and intuition.” In terms of improving learning and instruction, they
confirm that “cognitive psychologists have been working to build a body of
evidence to clarify what works and to discover the strategies that get results”.
The book goes ahead to distinguish cognitive psychologists from “developmental
and educational psychologists” who it describes as being “concerned with
theories of human development and how they can be used to shape the tools of
education, and resources for special groups” (p. 8). The book distils “the
findings of a large body of such studies that have stood up under review by the
scientific community before being published in professional journals” (Brown et
al., 2014, p. 9). As such proposals suggested to teachers and students, and
which could make a huge change in education, are based on research- cognitive
psychology research. All the assumptions made are in essence research finding
by cognitive psychological researchers.
The
book reiterates the “simple and practical strategies” techniques, “that anybody
can use, at any point in life, to learn better and remember longer: Various
forms of retrieval practice, such as low- stakes quizzing and self-testing,
spacing out practice, interleaving the practice of different but related topics
or skills, trying to solve a problem before being taught the solution,
distilling the underlying principles or rules that differentiate types of
problems” (p. 21). These techniques, verified by research as discussed above, clearly
hold the key to improvements in learning. They are not popular alternatives in
a world where technological advancements are at the center of all innovations. Yet,
there is overwhelming research backing as the path for the instructional
modification that improves cognitive mechanism.
Online Instructional Design
Technological
advancement, like in every sector soon catches up. The education sector has had
to embrace technology, efforts meant to remotely disseminate knowledge to
learners in a different set of circumstances and beyond regional boundaries. The
advent of online learning has been inevitable, posing a new challenge of
incorporating cognitive psychology techniques in the design of online
instruction. Richard Mayer’s paper recounts
a personal experience of developments in research on online learning that contributes
to the body of cognitive psychological research on learning, instruction, and
assessment. It is reiterated that learning occurs courtesy of instructional
techniques as opposed to instructional media. Mayer argues that digital learning
environments hold unique features. Furthermore, they should be additionally
subject to rigorous and systematic research. This assertion underpins the need
for exploring the active elements in learning and knowledge retention.
Subsequently, this enables identifying the most effective instructional
boundaries (Mayer, 2018).
Mayer
discusses the changing conceptions of learning starting in the twentieth
century. Through a three-phased approach, it emerges that behaviourists saw
learning as response strengthening. The theories relied on drilling and
practice for their instruction. In the second phases, Richard Mayer discussed cognitivist
reinforcing the view that learning is an acquired skill best done through
direct instruction. The last phase discussed is that of constructionist that
views learning as knowledge construction. This phase Mayer argues relies on
cognitive techniques, evidently a by-product of cognitive psychological
research. Moreover, Mayer’s work explores recent advances in the conception of
learning, the science of instruction, the science of assessment and calls for
future research in online learning and instruction. Mayer concludes that
“applied cognitive psychology is and will continue to be an exciting and
productive area of research” (Mayer, 2018, p. 157).
Conclusion
There
is overwhelming research evidence from years of work by cognitive psychologists
that show modifications to instructional methods improve cognitive mechanisms
in the classroom. Techniques proposed by cognitive psychology are dirt cheap
compared to the enormously costly propositions by profit-driven business
entities. While these expensive propositions are inevitable, they form a
potential research area for cognitive psychologists. Currently, techniques
fronted by cognitive psychology offers research-proven methods for making
improvements in educational systems.
References
Brown, P., Roediger, H., &
McDaniel, M. (2014). Make It Stick (pp. 162-252). The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press.
Lang, J. (2016). Small
Teaching (pp.
1-252). Jossey-Bass A Wiley Brand.
Mayer, R. (2018). Thirty years
of research on online learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(2),
152-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3482
Roediger, H., & Pyc, M.
(2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive
psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal Of Applied Research
In Memory And Cognition, 1(4), 242-248.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.09.002
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