Eye witness Memory

 

            An eyewitness is often an umbrella term that refers to a person who has seen an incident or an event enough to provide a detailed account. Therefore, one can be an eyewitness to a car accident or even an extraordinary event. One can also be an eyewitness to a crime, making them a valuable part of the law enforcement system. Eyewitness testimony can be the last nail needed to seal a suspected criminal's fate and provide sentencing. When coming from a reliable source, an eyewitness account can place the suspect on the crime scene and the suspect's role. Clifford & Scott (1978) argued: “that crimes range along a continuum of emotionality or arousal and that the recall abilities of witnesses to such different incidents may closely parallel that continuum” (p. 352).

       Therefore, this research review will delve into eyewitness memory, testimony psychology, aspects affecting memory, factors that can lead to the discrediting of an eyewitness, and improve eyewitness memory, false memories, and memory biases, among other related issues. Primarily, eyewitness memory is the episodic memory of a dramatic event or a crime that they have witnessed first-hand. Eyewitness testimony is a crucial element in the judicial system. Additionally, eyewitness memory includes their recollection of an individual or individuals’ faces, which could be the crime perpetrators. For example, in an investigation on rape, eyewitness memory includes a recollection of the face of their rapists. However, the accuracy of eyewitness memory is vulnerable to many factors and thus may be questionable sometimes. Eyewitness memory will be discussed in detail at a later point in this review. That is a crucial part of the discussion since it could and has led to wrongful convictions.

Factor Influencing Eyewitness Testimony

       Eyewitness testimony is a legally recognized term, and it describes the accounts given by an eyewitness, mainly regarding an event or incident that took place. Clifford & Scott writes that how factors that influence an eyewitness interact is still a challenge despite the elements' fair comprehension. For instance, Kuehn's (1974 as cited by Clifford & Scott, 1978) surveyed 100 cases found that the type of crime was significant to an eyewitness. The author saw that witness testimony for robberies was fuller than those of crimes like rape and assault. Clifford & Scott asserted that Kuehn's findings “be hypothesized that completeness of report decreased as a function of the increasing emotionality of the crime.” (p. 352). These testimonies are significant since they include descriptions of perpetrators and other specific details of the crime, leading to a conviction.

Psychological Factors

According to Clifford & Scott's research findings, eyewitness testimony about emotionally laden events should be treated more cautiously than the less emotional ones. It can be deduced that various psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, leading questions, reconstructive memory, and even weapon focus. Deffenbacher and colleagues note that various studies have been carried out to determine the effect of heightened anxiety and stress on eyewitness faithfulness to their duty. For instance, Clifford and Scott's experiment compared the effects of anxiety and stress on people who watched a violent film. The study used a four-way split-plot and involved six males and six females investigating the nature of the incident witnessed. Their research revealed that accuracy was lower under violent conditions.

Moreover, females, perhaps due to their emotional disposition, performed lower than males. Deffenbacher et al. (2004), in their meta-analyses of 27 independent tests, provides support for Clifford and Scott's evidence. They saw that high levels of stress affected eyewitness memory negatively. According to a 1908 article by Yerkes & Dodson, the Dodson Curve notes a direct relationship between memories, psychological distress, and anxiety until achieving an optimal point.

Live Vs. Laboratory Staged Incident

Common sense dictates that the closer to a crime incident, the more details a witness would recall. A study by Yuille & Cutshall (1986) in a case study analyzed thirteen eyewitness accounts of a shooting incident provided by police and from other research interviews four to five months later. At the time, their stress levels from the event had subsided and were thought to have no adverse effects. It was found that the witnesses were still accurate in their accounts, although some details were such as height, age, and weight estimations were off. These results differed from those of witnesses of a laboratory experiment version of the same event.

Reconstructive Memory

       Reconstructive memory is also an essential factor that may influence eyewitness testimony. According to Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory (Bartlett, 1932), it is essential to understand that recalling is subject to eyewitness events' interpretation. That would mean an eyewitness testimony vulnerable to cultural norms, values, and individual perceptions of the world. Many people think that memory is like a videotape and that it records and stores information precisely as it happens. Remembering is like playing back what was recorded. However, this is never the case since there is a lot of encoding and decoding involved with the information. The brain extracts the gist and any underlying meaning from the information presented. Bartlett saw that the brain stores information in a way that makes the most sense to them. Therefore, people often utilize schemas when receiving, interpreting, and storing information.

       Schemas are a way of organizing information. They can be described as mental ‘units’ of knowledge in correspondence with objects, situations, or people frequently encountered. This way, Bartlett could explain why the brain may not be able to process some situations immediately if they have never happened before and could quickly go into shock. From his work, it can be deduced that schemas create room for people to make sense of their encounters to predict what will happen. Furthermore, it is a defence mechanism since it helps people know how to react to certain situations if they find themselves involved in similar incidences. Bartlett'sWar of the Ghosts’ experiment where participants listened to a story and had to tell it to other people who had to tell it to other people and so on revealed that memory is not a factual recording but that people often try to make sense. Consequently, they change their memories. This same case applied to eyewitness memory, where the witness recalls it in the way that makes the most sense to them. Therefore, schemas serve as basic toolkits that determine an individual’s ability to recall information. On the other extreme, one cannot overlook potential aspects that position these mental units at risk of dysfunction. 

Weapon Focus

       The “weapon focus” phenomenon, as referred to by psychologists and lawyers (Loftus & Messo, 1987), also has a significant influence over eyewitness testimony. The idea is that it’s easier for an eyewitness to recall the presence of a weapon at the scene. Loftus and colleagues saw that crimes involving weapons were more prone to have more eyewitnesses than the opposite. Moreover, the authors opine that weapon focus could also act to the disadvantage of eyewitness testimony since many eyewitnesses recall more details about the weapon involved than the perpetrator's details. An eyewitness may remember that the victim was shot six times on the chest, even months after the crime happened, but they may not recall details about the shooter. Loftus & Messo experimented with this hypothesis. In one setting, the customer in a restaurant was holding a gun, while in a different setting, the customer had a chequebook. They found that subjects viewing the simulated robbery spent more time fixated on the weapon than those in control involving the cheque. The second experiment discovered that witnesses' memory in the weapon scenario was lower than in the control condition. The researchers concluded that the tendency to fixate on weapons reflected the trend to pay attention to an unusual object.

Inaccurate Eyewitness Account

       According to Yuille and Cutshall, the criminal justice system values eyewitness testimony. A related account can receive discrediting. Logically, the first pointer of an inaccurate eyewitness account is the presence of inconsistencies. These could include giving the same story differently, and it could range from overlooking minor details that may later prove to be critical to the case to change the whole story entirely. For example, some leading questions such as “did the perpetrator flee the crime scene via a getaway car or by foot? Did they point a knife or a gun at the victim? How many times was the victim shot or stabbed? What time of the day did this happen? How far away from the crime scene were you?” among others can be used to gauge the accuracy of an eyewitness.

Cross-race Effect

       As Clifford & Scott concurred various factors can directly influence an eyewitness account. In their review of existing literature, Brigham and colleagues explored aspects such as the victim's race versus the aggressor's race in both children and adults. The idea of the cross-race effect discussed refers to recognizing one’s race is more straightforward than the faces of another alien race. Inferring from that concept, it is easier for an eyewitness to give as many details as possible while referring to individuals of their race. As such, it could be thought that an eyewitness may deem irrelevant some features, thus distorting the information conveyed when referring to a perpetrator from an alien race.

       Moreover, in their chapter, Brigham et al. (2007) discuss likely conditions under which “own-race bias” or “other-race effect” may occur. Additionally, they offer actionable recommendations for collecting eyewitness evidence in incidences involving different races or ethnic backgrounds.  The authors suggest approaches such as using a lineup with several people instead of a show-up with only one person present in improving the accuracy of the identification process. Additionally, it is advisable to avoid repetition with the same suspect and the same witness. A double-blind lineup is also recommended where the administrator and the witness do not know who the suspect is. They are useful in preventing the administrator from influencing the eyewitness’s decision. Brigham and colleagues also cite debates challenging the effectiveness of photo lineups as opposed to living lineups. Testing the hypothesis of whether there is a better performance in one over the other is a subject to future research studies.

Misinformation Effect

       The misinformation effect also plays a vital role in eyewitness testimony since it directly affects eyewitness memory. Laney & Loftus (2021) describe the phenomenon as a situation where post-event information interferes with the actual event's memory. They opine that false memory also plays a role in this, and it can lead an eyewitness to misidentify an innocent person as the perpetrator. They can result from internal cognitive processes or misleading external information. False memories are dangerous since they may provide the wrong leads to the investigating officers. Despite the shortage of research on eyewitness memory, current studies have taken it upon themselves towards expounding on the same (Laney. & Loftus, 2021). The criminal justice system has also continued to work in tandem with cognitive psychology experts, alongside related fields, to determine the degree of credibility in eyewitness memory. Altogether, attempts to streamline criminal justice demands integrating varied psychological disciplines towards minimizing the chances of an erroneous judgment. 

Conclusion

            Ultimately, eyewitness memory is a crucial part of a criminal investigation. However, the discussion in this review proves that it is not always accurate. This statement is backed by evidence from multiple wrongful convictions that were solely based on eyewitness accounts. The wrongfully convicted suspects were exonerated based on DNA evidence revealed that they could not have been the criminals. It is recommended that as many eyewitnesses as possible be interviewed to help piece together the crime events. This means that even the accounts of accidental witnesses should be considered since they could give crucial details that the star eyewitness may have missed. Supporting witnesses demands sufficient consideration since they can be used to corroborate the account of the star eyewitness. The alibis accounts should also be investigated in this case since they may be used to discredit or confirm the eyewitness statement. In retrospect, based on all the factors that can affect eyewitness memory, including trauma that may lead to a block in their memory, it is best not to solely rely on eyewitness memory as the basis of a conviction unless it can be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.

 References

Bartlett, F.C., Burt, C. (1933). “Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology.” British Journal of Educational Psychology, 3(2), 187-192. Doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8279. 1933.tb02913. x.

Brigham, J. C., Bennett, L. B., Meissner, C. A., & Mitchell, T. L. (2007). “The influence of race on eyewitness memory.” In R. C. L. Lindsay, D. F. Ross, J. D. Read, & M. P. Toglia (Eds.), The handbook of eyewitness psychology, Vol. 2. Memory for people (p. 257–281). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Clifford, B.R. and Scott, J. (1978). “Individual and situational factors in eyewitness memory.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 352-359. Doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.63.3.352

Deffenbacher, K. A., Bornstein, B. H., Penrod, S. D., & McGorty, E. K. (2004). “A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory.” Law and human behaviour, 28(6), 687-706. DOI: 10.1007/s10979-004-0565-x

Loftus, E.F., Loftus, G.R., & Messo, J. (1987). “Some facts about weapon focus.” Law and Human behaviour, 11, 55-62. DOI: 10.2307/1393529

Yerkes R.M., Dodson JD (1908). “The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation.” Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18: 459–482. DOI: 10.1002/cne.920180503.

Yuille, J.C., & Cutshall, J.L. (1986). “A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(2), 291-301. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.291.

 

A psychological science: Visual long-term memory has the same limit on fidelity as visual working memory

         According to Brady et al. (2013), several studies have demonstrated “that visual long-term memory is capable of storing thousands of objects with considerable detail. However, the authors note that long-term memory fidelity has not been explored quantitatively. Moreover, it is difficult comparing across time scales and items the information observers must store to succeed in object discriminations. These observations formed the basis of the research questions. The investigation aimed at answering just how detailed visual long-term memory is. Additionally, it aimed to explore how that detail compared to the detail compared in the visual working -memory or the precision of perception.

            In determining the hypothesis, Brady and colleagues depended on memory for decision criteria instead of perceptual features of the objects. The researchers took “a psychophysical approach in attempts to quantify the fidelity of visual long-term memory for objects” and “used colour as a case study” (p. 4). Colour, they explain, was used because objects’ colours could be manipulated in a continuum. Therefore, the experiments set up were “a continuous color report on pictures of real-world objects” (Brady et al., 2013, p.6).

            Empirical results showed high accuracy fidelity in the perception condition, which fell significantly for both working memory and long-term memory conditions. This claim is confirmed by Biderman et al. (2018), who saw that studies found equal fidelity for both memory systems. Therefore, it is possible to have equal fidelity for both memory systems. However, Experiment 2’s results indicated that fidelity of long-term memory is not directly inherited from working memory.  This finding could form a different area to ensure its replicability.

 

References

Biderman, N., Luria, R., Teodorescu, A., Hajaj, R., & Goshen-Gottstein, Y. (2018). Working Memory Has Better Fidelity Than Long-Term Memory: The Fidelity Constraint Is Not a General Property of Memory After All. Psychological Science, 30(2), 223-237. DOI: 10.1177/0956797618813538

Brady, T., Konkle, T., Gill, J., Oliva, A., & Alvarez, G. (2013). Visual Long-Term Memory Has the Same Limit on Fidelity as Visual Working Memory. Psychological Science, 24(6), 981-990. DOI: 10.1177/0956797612465439

 

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review: Long-Term Semantic Representations Moderate the Effect of Attentional Refreshing on Episodic

        According to Loaiza and colleagues, working memory and long-term memory are “distinguishable but related constructs” (p.3).  In distinguishing the two memory systems, the authors note that working memory is the memory system “responsible for maintaining and processing information” (p.3) on an ongoing basis. About long-term memory, they describe it as the grasping of information no longer required in the working memory. Additionally, they split long-term memory into semantic memory and episodic memory sub-systems. Testing working memory applies complex span tasks.

Moreover, Camos et al. (2009, as cited by Loaiza, 2014) saw that studies mainly investigated working memory “mechanisms, articulatory rehearsals and attentional refreshing” (p. 4). Loaiza et al. (2014) assert that refreshing is also vital for episodic memory. Additionally, they cite studies that show the McCabe Effect because of refreshing. The researchers point that recollection has not always been done within the context of the McCabe effect. As such, Loaiza and colleagues study investigated the general hypothesis that “refreshing during working memory facilitates recollection” (p.6). Loaiza and the team tested their theory by investigating whether manipulating “the opportunity to refresh memoranda during WM predicts recollection-based EM” (6). Secondly, the researchers “examined whether any potential influence of refreshing opportunities on recollection would be attenuated when memoranda were unknown. That way, they write that they could address the “unresolved issues concerning the relative importance of WM refreshing in EM” (p.6). They found that the empirical results supported their hypothesis, that “mechanisms supporting working memory may facilitate recollection that occurs during later EM retrieval” (Loaiza et al. n.d., p.12).

References

Loaiza, V., Duperreault, K., Rhodes, M., & McCabe, D. (2014). Long-term semantic representations moderate the effect of attentional refreshing on episodic memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(1), 274-280. DOI: 10.3758/s13423-014-0673-7

Critical Review of Where Working Memory Meets Long-Term Memory

     Loaiza & Halse (2018) answer the primary research questions that answer questions, “How do humans maintain relevant information from moment to moment, and how may these underlying processes affect retention long after that information has left immediate awareness?” (p. 1455). The colleagues, through those questions, explore the intersection of working memory and long-term memory. The authors note that studies have increasingly investigated refreshing concerning attention to memoranda. Loaiza & Halse do a considerable review of the existing literature.

            In their investigation, the researchers investigated the intersection of working memory and long-term memory in three experiments. In these experiments, the researchers manipulated the list length and several distractors “following the memoranda in a Brown-Peterson-like-span task” (p.1455).  The first experiment used thirty-one participants who had provided informed consent and debriefed at the end of the investigation. The experiment’s design was such that it “manipulated the number of words to recall… and the number of distractors following the word” (p.1459). Experiment 3 had thirty participants and, besides, explored “performance as a function of serial position” (p. 1461). The third experiment also had thirty participants, and the results replicated those of the previous two. It was established that “list length never moderated

the beneficial effect of distractors on FFR across all three experiments” (1467).

            The findings of these studies are admissible, given that the researchers build upon the existing literature. For instance, this study also involved extrapolating Loaiza and McCabe’s 2012 study. While the results seem conflicting with previous observations, “that list length may have diminished the efficiency of retrieval” (p.1467), the research is about providing a theoretically meaningful factor.

Reference

Loaiza, V., & Halse, S. (2019). Where working memory meets long-term memory: The interplay of list length and distractors on memory performance. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 45(8), 1455-1472. Doi: 10.1037/xlm0000652

Evaluation of Shelton et al. Research Report

         Shelton and colleagues' empirical study investigates whether working memory is extraordinary. Cowan (1995, as cited by Shelton et al., 2010) finds that theoretical research reveals that working memory is “a system that operates via a dynamic interaction between memory and executive attention processes” (p. 813). In their study, sought to replicate and extend earlier Mogle et al. research findings (2008 as cited in Shelton et al., 2010) that “if the relationship between these tasks and fluid intelligence is not due to any unique features of complex span tasks, it may prove more fruitful to determine which secondary memory processes relate to fluid intelligence” (p. 813).

In their approach, the researchers used a controlled laboratory design in which 172 undergraduate students who participated in experiments performed cognitive tests. The test represented “the constructs of working memory, secondary memory, primary memory, fluid intelligence, and processing speed” (p.814). They combined “two-span tests and the N-back task”-  laboratory-based working memory tests with neuropsychological tests. Therefore, the study could perform a broader assessment of the multi-faceted working memory and take advantage of the strong psychometric properties.

Shelton et al. found that their results contradicted Mogle et al.’s study that they sought to replicate. Data from the survey suggested that, indeed, working memory is extraordinary. Furthermore, “the structural equation modeling analyses” revealed, “that working memory was a unique predictor of fluid intelligence” (p. 816).  These findings could be extrapolated to concur with other studies that contradict Melby-Lervag et al. (2016) by finding that working memory train programs produce beneficial. Melby-Lervag and colleagues conclude that working memory training programs have only short-term specific training results disregarding basic cognitive skills.

References

Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer.” Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(4), 512-534. Doi: 10.1177/1745691616635612

Shelton, J., Elliott, E., Matthews, R., Hill, B., & Gouvier, W. (2010). The relationships of working memory, secondary memory, and general fluid intelligence: Working memory is special. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 36(3), 813-820. Doi: 10.1037/a0019046

 

False Memories, And Why Might We Experience Such Memory Illusions

         Fantasies of future events rarely requires mental accuracy about reality. However, it is recalling past happenings that has the possibility to confuse memory of the actual events. There is a way in which recognition, storage, post event misinformation and can lead to inaccurate, illusionary memories. Explicit and implicit memory, semantic and episodic memory, post event misinformation, and illusionary memories are all linked in numerous ways. This essay will define these terms, and cite memory experiments designs and outcomes. Particularly, it will answer what false memories are and why we might experience such memory illusions.

           False memories have their origins in recognition processes of recall and familiarity. Recalling involves consciously recovery of contexts and elaborations given to items when initially studied. Familiarity is the relatively automatic judgement that something was previously encountered. These dual recognition processes run in parallel, with familiarity being faster than recollection but is rapidly decreasing. These processes can be the basis of why observers may collect data inaccurately. Signal Detection Theory experiments are useful tools for analysis of accuracy of observers. The design of the classical signal detection experiments require a “yes” or “no” responses regarding the presence of a stimuli on every trial. Positively indicating presence of a signal is called  a hit,  while correct indication of absence is referred to as correct rejection. Moreover, indicating absence while there is a presence of a signal is called a miss. The two dimensions of the observer of concern are their sensitivity and response bias. Research signal detection there found that response bias is affected by various factors such as consequences for each outcome. Similarly, sensitivity is is affected only by operations that change the level of ambiguity.

           A lot of what is retrieved from memory passes through schemas. These organizational web helps us remember but could also lead to false memories due to momentary expectations. Orienting tasks experiments on recall by Graf, squire, & Mandler were designed to investigate effects on both incidental and intentional conditions. Semantic and non-semantic memory combined with the pleasantness found that recall was higher under semantic conditions and after ratings of pleasantness. Another experiment, Deese, Roediger and McDermott (DRM) lists was designed to study false memory conveniently in a laboratory set up.

Application of Cognitive Psychology to Education

 

Learning is a lifelong process. Brown and colleagues add that if one can learn well, then they have an advantage in life. Schooling years may come to an end but the next phase poses challenges for which one must wrap one head around. As such learning is a personal experience, that is aimed at building a body of knowledge upon which individuals base their creativity and their decisions. In essence, before modifying an electronic device, then someone must have sufficient information in that area. The term cognitive comes from the word cognition that refers to refer to processes in the human mind in gaining knowledge and understanding. These processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. As such, cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think.  According to Vosniadou (1996), “Cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s as a result of the failure of behaviourism to provide adequate explanations of human cognition. Although many of the ideas of cognitive psychology can be traced to the work of a number of psychologists and philosophers who lived at a much earlier time” (p. 97). 

This paper aims at reviewing cognitive psychological research literature particularly that which leans towards the application of cognitive psychology techniques to learning and instruction. It relies on document reviews and evaluates existing literature touching on research on learning and instruction. The documents reviewed in this paper were found through searching the terms “cognitive psychology, learning, instruction” on Google Scholar while others are suggested readings on the topic. As such this essay is a basis for understanding approach cognitive psychology view of learning and instruction. It aims at exploring techniques teachers and coaches could use in becoming more effective in helping students understand principles and by designing them into learning experiences. Pursuing modifications to instructional design triggers a different cognitive mechanism that aid in the learning and retention of information.

Cognitive Psychology as an Applied Science of Learning

According to Glaser (1994 as cited by Vosniadou, 1996), cognitive psychological research through its precise descriptions of our intelligent performance of mental processes brought forth “an applied science of learning.” Essentially, this applied science is made up of instructional intervention and experiments that distinguish themselves from the basic psychology applied to education. the cognitive psychological research in this case includes fundamental research in how teaching and learning take place. Stella Vosniadou supports this claim writing that the resulting cognitive psychology contribution to advances in learning and instruction were to a large extent as a result of its methodology. In her paper review, the author comments that cognitive psychology original epistemology and implicit theory were “not fruitful enough to provide hypotheses about the kinds of environmental variables that facilitate the acquisition of complex modes of performance. Nevertheless, it seems that cognitive psychology could provide the needed theoretical framework if the original epistemology that guided cognitive psychological research is revised” (Vosniadou, 1996, p. 96).

However, Vosniadou writes that as psychologists and educators have recognized the significance of cognitive psychology “in our understanding of learning and instruction” so has its basic assumptions been challenged. For instance, Vosniadou finds that situativity theory claims that “behaviour including learning, should be investigated as an interaction between social agents and the physical environment”.  This assertion is against the cognitive psychology assumption that in learning and instructions, the mind “constructs and manipulates symbols through various cognitive processes” (p. 95). Additionally, the author notes the “Chomskyan biological perspective” (Vosniadou, 1996, p. 96) also as having an opposing view claiming that the human mind is preprogrammed acquire systems of knowledge. Despite the opposition, it is generally agreed that cognitive psychology has contributed to advances in learning and instruction.

Cognitive Techniques for Instructional Modifications

The article Towards A Revised Cognitive Psychology for New Advances In Learning And Instruction (1996) discusses cognitive research basic reach program with particular attention to aspects that “attention to those aspects that seem important from a learning theory” (p. 96). Vosniadou does this by attempting to answer the research questions; “has cognitive psychology contributed to our understanding of learning? Where has cognitive psychology failed?... What are the implications of all these for future research on learning and instruction?” (p. 96). The argument is that cognitive psychology if its view of the mind is revised, can provide a theoretical framework “that has a place both for the individual mind and for the larger social and cultural context that makes intellectual activity possible and meaningful” (p. 106). This way it is thought that the dissatisfaction of many researchers in the areas of learning and instruction would have a much-needed theoretical framework that takes into “consideration the biological, environmental, and sociocultural constraints within which” (Vosniadou, 1996, 2012, p. 106) cognitive processes occur. Effectively, the author breaks down cognitive psychology application in education as a methodology of experimental psychology coupled with cognitive task analysis.

Many researchers have taken to understanding the variables that influence learning processes. The result is a growing body of research.  Roediger & Pyc (2012) Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice added to this understanding of variables influencing learning. The authors argued that cognitive and educational psychologists had identified strategies that could greatly and inexpensively improve learning and information retention. However, when it came to improving the educational system, some in Congress and the business community recommend expensive technological applications not necessarily based on any research. Citing the costly example of providing every American child with a computer, the authors argue for the need for large studies to show the step’s effectiveness, how and when computer-based education is warranted. Whitehurst (2010 as cited by Roediger & Pyc, 2012) asserts proving that educational innovations should be based on strong research evidence that it produces positive results compared to standard practice in educational techniques.

Roediger and Pyc in their paper discuss the results of cognitive and educational psychological researchers shown to produce positive effects in learning. The front techniques with strong that address the long-standing concerns of creativity in students. The argument made is that for students to exhibit creativity, they must equally have a good understanding of concept within a certain area. Robert Sternberg and Elena Grigorenko (2003, as cited by Roediger & Pyc, 2012) commented that “Teachers need to put behind them the false dichotomy between ‘teaching for Thinking’ and ‘teaching for facts,’ or between emphases on thinking or emphases on memory. Thinking always requires memory and the knowledge base that is accessed through the use of memory. …One cannot apply what one knows in a practical manner if one does not know anything to apply” (p. 243). As such, emphasis on techniques with strong basic laboratory research and “research with educational materials and, in some cases, evidence from research in the classroom” (Roediger & Pyc, 2012, p. 243) aimed at contributing to students building of their knowledge base.

The paper discusses cognitive strategies that work in improving learning and retention as studied by cognitive and educational psychologists. Moreover, they discuss strategies for developing effective learning. Roediger and Pyc identify five techniques that are inexpensive to implement and have been shown to work through scientific research. These techniques include “distribution (spacing) of practice and interleaving” (p.244) “retrieval practice” (p. 245, 246) “explanatory questioning (Roediger & Pyc, 2012, 246). The authors conclude that education can be improved in every country courtesy of the techniques described. However, for individual study, the authors find that they require a motivated learner for which most are not.

            Multiples of such research studies by cognitive psychologist spanning over years have produced a body of knowledge that could inform modifications to teaching and learning. Brown and colleagues’ book, Make it stick: the science of successful learning published in 2012 grew out of such cognitive psychological research. The book is described as partly the result of a collaborative venture that borrows from a previous study by cognitive psychologists Roediger and colleagues. Additionally, it features a creative writer as the researchers aim at relaying their years of discoveries without too many descriptions of the methodologies and analysis. As such creatively uses stories of individuals who have found mastery of complex knowledge and skills in explaining how learning and memory work. Techniques that have been found to improve learning and instruction are discussed applying the same techniques throughout the book.

Brown and colleagues assert that “how we teach and study is largely a mix of theory, lore, and intuition.” In terms of improving learning and instruction, they confirm that “cognitive psychologists have been working to build a body of evidence to clarify what works and to discover the strategies that get results”. The book goes ahead to distinguish cognitive psychologists from “developmental and educational psychologists” who it describes as being “concerned with theories of human development and how they can be used to shape the tools of education, and resources for special groups” (p. 8). The book distils “the findings of a large body of such studies that have stood up under review by the scientific community before being published in professional journals” (Brown et al., 2014, p. 9). As such proposals suggested to teachers and students, and which could make a huge change in education, are based on research- cognitive psychology research. All the assumptions made are in essence research finding by cognitive psychological researchers.

The book reiterates the “simple and practical strategies” techniques, “that anybody can use, at any point in life, to learn better and remember longer: Various forms of retrieval practice, such as low- stakes quizzing and self-testing, spacing out practice, interleaving the practice of different but related topics or skills, trying to solve a problem before being taught the solution, distilling the underlying principles or rules that differentiate types of problems” (p. 21). These techniques, verified by research as discussed above, clearly hold the key to improvements in learning. They are not popular alternatives in a world where technological advancements are at the center of all innovations. Yet, there is overwhelming research backing as the path for the instructional modification that improves cognitive mechanism.

Online Instructional Design

Technological advancement, like in every sector soon catches up. The education sector has had to embrace technology, efforts meant to remotely disseminate knowledge to learners in a different set of circumstances and beyond regional boundaries. The advent of online learning has been inevitable, posing a new challenge of incorporating cognitive psychology techniques in the design of online instruction.  Richard Mayer’s paper recounts a personal experience of developments in research on online learning that contributes to the body of cognitive psychological research on learning, instruction, and assessment. It is reiterated that learning occurs courtesy of instructional techniques as opposed to instructional media. Mayer argues that digital learning environments hold unique features. Furthermore, they should be additionally subject to rigorous and systematic research. This assertion underpins the need for exploring the active elements in learning and knowledge retention. Subsequently, this enables identifying the most effective instructional boundaries (Mayer, 2018).

Mayer discusses the changing conceptions of learning starting in the twentieth century. Through a three-phased approach, it emerges that behaviourists saw learning as response strengthening. The theories relied on drilling and practice for their instruction. In the second phases, Richard Mayer discussed cognitivist reinforcing the view that learning is an acquired skill best done through direct instruction. The last phase discussed is that of constructionist that views learning as knowledge construction. This phase Mayer argues relies on cognitive techniques, evidently a by-product of cognitive psychological research. Moreover, Mayer’s work explores recent advances in the conception of learning, the science of instruction, the science of assessment and calls for future research in online learning and instruction. Mayer concludes that “applied cognitive psychology is and will continue to be an exciting and productive area of research” (Mayer, 2018, p. 157).

Conclusion

            There is overwhelming research evidence from years of work by cognitive psychologists that show modifications to instructional methods improve cognitive mechanisms in the classroom. Techniques proposed by cognitive psychology are dirt cheap compared to the enormously costly propositions by profit-driven business entities. While these expensive propositions are inevitable, they form a potential research area for cognitive psychologists. Currently, techniques fronted by cognitive psychology offers research-proven methods for making improvements in educational systems. 

References

Brown, P., Roediger, H., & McDaniel, M. (2014). Make It Stick (pp. 162-252). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Lang, J. (2016). Small Teaching (pp. 1-252). Jossey-Bass A Wiley Brand.

Mayer, R. (2018). Thirty years of research on online learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(2), 152-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3482

Roediger, H., & Pyc, M. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal Of Applied Research In Memory And Cognition, 1(4), 242-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.09.002

Vosniadou, S. (1996). Towards a Revised Cognitive Psychology for New Advances in Learning and Instruction. Learning and Instruction, 6(2), 95-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4752(96)00008-4