Application of Cognitive Psychology to Education

 

Learning is a lifelong process. Brown and colleagues add that if one can learn well, then they have an advantage in life. Schooling years may come to an end but the next phase poses challenges for which one must wrap one head around. As such learning is a personal experience, that is aimed at building a body of knowledge upon which individuals base their creativity and their decisions. In essence, before modifying an electronic device, then someone must have sufficient information in that area. The term cognitive comes from the word cognition that refers to refer to processes in the human mind in gaining knowledge and understanding. These processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. As such, cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think.  According to Vosniadou (1996), “Cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s as a result of the failure of behaviourism to provide adequate explanations of human cognition. Although many of the ideas of cognitive psychology can be traced to the work of a number of psychologists and philosophers who lived at a much earlier time” (p. 97). 

This paper aims at reviewing cognitive psychological research literature particularly that which leans towards the application of cognitive psychology techniques to learning and instruction. It relies on document reviews and evaluates existing literature touching on research on learning and instruction. The documents reviewed in this paper were found through searching the terms “cognitive psychology, learning, instruction” on Google Scholar while others are suggested readings on the topic. As such this essay is a basis for understanding approach cognitive psychology view of learning and instruction. It aims at exploring techniques teachers and coaches could use in becoming more effective in helping students understand principles and by designing them into learning experiences. Pursuing modifications to instructional design triggers a different cognitive mechanism that aid in the learning and retention of information.

Cognitive Psychology as an Applied Science of Learning

According to Glaser (1994 as cited by Vosniadou, 1996), cognitive psychological research through its precise descriptions of our intelligent performance of mental processes brought forth “an applied science of learning.” Essentially, this applied science is made up of instructional intervention and experiments that distinguish themselves from the basic psychology applied to education. the cognitive psychological research in this case includes fundamental research in how teaching and learning take place. Stella Vosniadou supports this claim writing that the resulting cognitive psychology contribution to advances in learning and instruction were to a large extent as a result of its methodology. In her paper review, the author comments that cognitive psychology original epistemology and implicit theory were “not fruitful enough to provide hypotheses about the kinds of environmental variables that facilitate the acquisition of complex modes of performance. Nevertheless, it seems that cognitive psychology could provide the needed theoretical framework if the original epistemology that guided cognitive psychological research is revised” (Vosniadou, 1996, p. 96).

However, Vosniadou writes that as psychologists and educators have recognized the significance of cognitive psychology “in our understanding of learning and instruction” so has its basic assumptions been challenged. For instance, Vosniadou finds that situativity theory claims that “behaviour including learning, should be investigated as an interaction between social agents and the physical environment”.  This assertion is against the cognitive psychology assumption that in learning and instructions, the mind “constructs and manipulates symbols through various cognitive processes” (p. 95). Additionally, the author notes the “Chomskyan biological perspective” (Vosniadou, 1996, p. 96) also as having an opposing view claiming that the human mind is preprogrammed acquire systems of knowledge. Despite the opposition, it is generally agreed that cognitive psychology has contributed to advances in learning and instruction.

Cognitive Techniques for Instructional Modifications

The article Towards A Revised Cognitive Psychology for New Advances In Learning And Instruction (1996) discusses cognitive research basic reach program with particular attention to aspects that “attention to those aspects that seem important from a learning theory” (p. 96). Vosniadou does this by attempting to answer the research questions; “has cognitive psychology contributed to our understanding of learning? Where has cognitive psychology failed?... What are the implications of all these for future research on learning and instruction?” (p. 96). The argument is that cognitive psychology if its view of the mind is revised, can provide a theoretical framework “that has a place both for the individual mind and for the larger social and cultural context that makes intellectual activity possible and meaningful” (p. 106). This way it is thought that the dissatisfaction of many researchers in the areas of learning and instruction would have a much-needed theoretical framework that takes into “consideration the biological, environmental, and sociocultural constraints within which” (Vosniadou, 1996, 2012, p. 106) cognitive processes occur. Effectively, the author breaks down cognitive psychology application in education as a methodology of experimental psychology coupled with cognitive task analysis.

Many researchers have taken to understanding the variables that influence learning processes. The result is a growing body of research.  Roediger & Pyc (2012) Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice added to this understanding of variables influencing learning. The authors argued that cognitive and educational psychologists had identified strategies that could greatly and inexpensively improve learning and information retention. However, when it came to improving the educational system, some in Congress and the business community recommend expensive technological applications not necessarily based on any research. Citing the costly example of providing every American child with a computer, the authors argue for the need for large studies to show the step’s effectiveness, how and when computer-based education is warranted. Whitehurst (2010 as cited by Roediger & Pyc, 2012) asserts proving that educational innovations should be based on strong research evidence that it produces positive results compared to standard practice in educational techniques.

Roediger and Pyc in their paper discuss the results of cognitive and educational psychological researchers shown to produce positive effects in learning. The front techniques with strong that address the long-standing concerns of creativity in students. The argument made is that for students to exhibit creativity, they must equally have a good understanding of concept within a certain area. Robert Sternberg and Elena Grigorenko (2003, as cited by Roediger & Pyc, 2012) commented that “Teachers need to put behind them the false dichotomy between ‘teaching for Thinking’ and ‘teaching for facts,’ or between emphases on thinking or emphases on memory. Thinking always requires memory and the knowledge base that is accessed through the use of memory. …One cannot apply what one knows in a practical manner if one does not know anything to apply” (p. 243). As such, emphasis on techniques with strong basic laboratory research and “research with educational materials and, in some cases, evidence from research in the classroom” (Roediger & Pyc, 2012, p. 243) aimed at contributing to students building of their knowledge base.

The paper discusses cognitive strategies that work in improving learning and retention as studied by cognitive and educational psychologists. Moreover, they discuss strategies for developing effective learning. Roediger and Pyc identify five techniques that are inexpensive to implement and have been shown to work through scientific research. These techniques include “distribution (spacing) of practice and interleaving” (p.244) “retrieval practice” (p. 245, 246) “explanatory questioning (Roediger & Pyc, 2012, 246). The authors conclude that education can be improved in every country courtesy of the techniques described. However, for individual study, the authors find that they require a motivated learner for which most are not.

            Multiples of such research studies by cognitive psychologist spanning over years have produced a body of knowledge that could inform modifications to teaching and learning. Brown and colleagues’ book, Make it stick: the science of successful learning published in 2012 grew out of such cognitive psychological research. The book is described as partly the result of a collaborative venture that borrows from a previous study by cognitive psychologists Roediger and colleagues. Additionally, it features a creative writer as the researchers aim at relaying their years of discoveries without too many descriptions of the methodologies and analysis. As such creatively uses stories of individuals who have found mastery of complex knowledge and skills in explaining how learning and memory work. Techniques that have been found to improve learning and instruction are discussed applying the same techniques throughout the book.

Brown and colleagues assert that “how we teach and study is largely a mix of theory, lore, and intuition.” In terms of improving learning and instruction, they confirm that “cognitive psychologists have been working to build a body of evidence to clarify what works and to discover the strategies that get results”. The book goes ahead to distinguish cognitive psychologists from “developmental and educational psychologists” who it describes as being “concerned with theories of human development and how they can be used to shape the tools of education, and resources for special groups” (p. 8). The book distils “the findings of a large body of such studies that have stood up under review by the scientific community before being published in professional journals” (Brown et al., 2014, p. 9). As such proposals suggested to teachers and students, and which could make a huge change in education, are based on research- cognitive psychology research. All the assumptions made are in essence research finding by cognitive psychological researchers.

The book reiterates the “simple and practical strategies” techniques, “that anybody can use, at any point in life, to learn better and remember longer: Various forms of retrieval practice, such as low- stakes quizzing and self-testing, spacing out practice, interleaving the practice of different but related topics or skills, trying to solve a problem before being taught the solution, distilling the underlying principles or rules that differentiate types of problems” (p. 21). These techniques, verified by research as discussed above, clearly hold the key to improvements in learning. They are not popular alternatives in a world where technological advancements are at the center of all innovations. Yet, there is overwhelming research backing as the path for the instructional modification that improves cognitive mechanism.

Online Instructional Design

Technological advancement, like in every sector soon catches up. The education sector has had to embrace technology, efforts meant to remotely disseminate knowledge to learners in a different set of circumstances and beyond regional boundaries. The advent of online learning has been inevitable, posing a new challenge of incorporating cognitive psychology techniques in the design of online instruction.  Richard Mayer’s paper recounts a personal experience of developments in research on online learning that contributes to the body of cognitive psychological research on learning, instruction, and assessment. It is reiterated that learning occurs courtesy of instructional techniques as opposed to instructional media. Mayer argues that digital learning environments hold unique features. Furthermore, they should be additionally subject to rigorous and systematic research. This assertion underpins the need for exploring the active elements in learning and knowledge retention. Subsequently, this enables identifying the most effective instructional boundaries (Mayer, 2018).

Mayer discusses the changing conceptions of learning starting in the twentieth century. Through a three-phased approach, it emerges that behaviourists saw learning as response strengthening. The theories relied on drilling and practice for their instruction. In the second phases, Richard Mayer discussed cognitivist reinforcing the view that learning is an acquired skill best done through direct instruction. The last phase discussed is that of constructionist that views learning as knowledge construction. This phase Mayer argues relies on cognitive techniques, evidently a by-product of cognitive psychological research. Moreover, Mayer’s work explores recent advances in the conception of learning, the science of instruction, the science of assessment and calls for future research in online learning and instruction. Mayer concludes that “applied cognitive psychology is and will continue to be an exciting and productive area of research” (Mayer, 2018, p. 157).

Conclusion

            There is overwhelming research evidence from years of work by cognitive psychologists that show modifications to instructional methods improve cognitive mechanisms in the classroom. Techniques proposed by cognitive psychology are dirt cheap compared to the enormously costly propositions by profit-driven business entities. While these expensive propositions are inevitable, they form a potential research area for cognitive psychologists. Currently, techniques fronted by cognitive psychology offers research-proven methods for making improvements in educational systems. 

References

Brown, P., Roediger, H., & McDaniel, M. (2014). Make It Stick (pp. 162-252). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Lang, J. (2016). Small Teaching (pp. 1-252). Jossey-Bass A Wiley Brand.

Mayer, R. (2018). Thirty years of research on online learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(2), 152-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3482

Roediger, H., & Pyc, M. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal Of Applied Research In Memory And Cognition, 1(4), 242-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.09.002

Vosniadou, S. (1996). Towards a Revised Cognitive Psychology for New Advances in Learning and Instruction. Learning and Instruction, 6(2), 95-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4752(96)00008-4